Third-person pronouns, by contrast, are associated with distancing and negative feelings (e.g., Olekalns, Brett, & Donohue, 2010). Similarly, transmitting stereotype-congruent information helps develop closeness among newly acquainted individuals (Ruscher, Cralley, & OFarrell, 2005). People also may obtain their news from social media mechanisms such as Facebook and Twitter, or from pundits and comedians. Most notably, communicators may feel pressured to transmit a coherent message. Certainly prejudiced beliefs sometimes are communicated because people are motivatedexplicitly or implicitlyby intergroup bias. Thus, certain outgroups may be snubbed or passed by when their successful contributions should be recognized, and may not receive helpful guidance when their unsuccessful attempts need improvement. For example, communicators may speak louder, exaggerate stress points, and vary their pitch more with foreigners than with native adults. These features include shorter sentences, slower speech rate, and more commonly used words than might be used with native speakers. Thus, group-disparaging humor takes advantage of peoples knowledge of stereotypes, may perpetuate stereotypes by using subgroups or lowering of receivers guard to get the joke, and may suggest that stereotypic beliefs are normative within the ingroup. Truncation may be used to describe sexual violence (e.g., The woman was raped), drawing attention to the victim instead of the assailant (Henley, Miller, & Beazley, 1995). Analyze barriers to effective interculturalcommunication. There is some evidence that, at least in group settings, higher status others withhold appropriate praise from lower status outgroup members. It is not unusual to experience some level of discomfort in communicating with individuals from other cultures or co-cultures. Although the dehumanizing metaphor may include a label (as discussed in the earlier section), the metaphor goes beyond a mere label: Labeling a group as parasites also implies that they perpetuate moral or physical disease, evince swarming behavior by living in unpredictable bands of individuals, and are not true contributing members of society (i.e., parasites live off a host society). There also is considerable evidence that the linguistic intergroup bias is a special case of the linguistic expectancy bias whereby stereotype-congruent behaviorsirrespective of evaluative connotationare characterized more abstractly than stereotype-incongruent behaviors. Peoples stereotypic and prejudiced beliefs do not only influence how they communicate about outgroup members, but also how they communicate to outgroup members. They are wild animals, robots, and vermin who should be feared, guarded against, or exterminated. Thus, prejudiced communication can include the betrayal of attributional biases that credit members of the ingroup, but blame members of the outgroup. Butte College, 10 Sept. 2020, https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/58206. and the result is rather excessive amounts of exposure to stereotypic images for people in modern society. Here are examples of social barriers: People with disabilities are far less likely to be employed. Communicators may use secondary baby talk when speaking to aged persons, and may fail to adjust appropriately for variability in cognitive functioning; higher functioning elderly persons may find baby talk patronizing and offensive. Derogatory labels evoke the negative stereotypes for which they are summary terms, and once evoked, those negative stereotypes are likely to be applied by observers. Within the field of social psychology, the linguistic intergroup bias arguably is the most extensively studied topic in prejudiced communication. This page titled 2.3: Barriers to Intercultural Communication is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Lisa Coleman, Thomas King, & William Turner. Stereotypic and prejudiced beliefs sometimes can be obfuscated by humor that appears to target subgroups of a larger outgroup. Neither is right or wrong, simply different. Failures to provide the critical differentiated feedback, warnings, or advice are, in a sense, sins of omission. The contexts discussedhumor, news, entertaining filmcomprise some notable examples of how prejudiced communication is infused into daily life. It refers to a primary negative perception created by individuals on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, cast or language. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Language barriers can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the message. Prejudiced communication affects both the people it targets as well as observers in the wider social environment. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Although they perhaps can control the content of their verbal behavior (e.g., praise), Whites who are concerned about appearing prejudiced nonverbally leak their anxieties into the interaction. Although leakage may not be immediately obvious to many observers, there is evidence that some people pick up on communicators attitudes and beliefs. One prominent example is called face-ism, which is the preference for close-up photos of faces of people from groups viewed as intelligent, powerful, and rational; conversely, low face-ism reflects preference for photographing more of the body, and is prevalent for groups who are viewed as more emotional or less powerful. Indeed, individuals from collectivist cultureswho especially value ingroup harmonydefault to transmitting stereotype-congruent information unless an explicit communication goal indicates doing so is inappropriate (Yeung & Kashima, 2012). 14. Reliance on shared stereotypicand even archetypicalimages essentially meets the communication goals discussed earlier: A story must be coherent, relevant, and transmitted in a finite amount of time. Generalization reflects a preference for abstract rather than concrete descriptions. On May 25, 2020, George Floyd died after Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin knelt on his neck for over 8 minutes;almost 3 of those minutes were after Floyd was unconscious. What is transmitted is very likely to be stereotypic, brief, and incomplete . . Stereotype can have a negative effect when people use them to interpret behavior. For example, female members of British Parliament may be photographed in stereotypically feminine contexts (e.g., sitting on a comfortable sofa sipping tea; Ross & Sreberny-Mohammadi, 1997). The smile that reflects true enjoyment, the Duchenne smile, includes wrinkling at the corners of the eyes. Ordinary citizens now have a historically unprecedented level of access to vehicles of mass communication. If there are 15 women in a room, consider how efficient it is to simply reference the one woman as shellac. Indeed, this efficiency even shows up in literature. 3. The research on cross-race feedback by Kent Harber and his colleagues (e.g., Harber et al., 2012) provides some insight into how and why this feedback pattern might occur. Even if you don't outwardly display prejudice, you may still hold deeply rooted prejudicial beliefs that govern your actions and attitudes. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. Students tended to rely on first-person plurals when referencing wins, but third-person plurals when referencing losses. More implicit attitudes and beliefs may be leaked through variations in sentence structure and subtle word choices. Overcoming Barriers to our Perceptions. In many such cases, the higher status person has the responsibility of evaluating the performance of the lower status person. In K. D. Keith (Ed. Favoritism may include increased provision of desirable resources and more positive evaluation of behaviors and personal qualities, as well as protection from unpleasant outcomes. Subsequently presented informationparticularly when explicitly or implicitly following a disjunctionis presumed to be included because it is especially relevant. Define and give examples of stereotyping. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. The communicator makes assumptions about the receivers knowledge, competence, and motivation; those assumptions guide the message construction, and may be revised as needed. Information overload is a common barrier to effective listening that good speakers can help mitigate by building redundancy into their speeches and providing concrete examples of new information to help audience members interpret and understand the key ideas. Stereotypes are oversimplifiedideas about groups of people. In addition to the linguistic intergroup bias, communicators rely on myriad linguistic strategies that betray and maintain intergroup biases. A "small" way might be in disdain for other cultures' or co-cultures' food preferences. This person could be referenced as The man is sitting on his porch or The lazy guy on the porch. The first characterization is concrete, in that it does not make inferences about the mans disposition that extend beyond the time and place of the event. How we perceive others can be improved by developing better listening and empathetic skills, becoming aware of stereotypes and prejudice, developing self-awareness through self-reflection, and engaging in perception checking. Another motivation that may influence descriptions of outgroups falls under the general category of impression management goals. People who are especially motivated to present themselves as non-prejudiced, for example, might avoid communicating stereotype-congruent information and instead might favor stereotype-incongruent information. Although the person issuing the invite may not consciously have intended to exclude female, unmarried, or sexual minority faculty members, the word choice implies that such individuals did not merit forethought. Activities: Experiencing Intercultural Barriers Through Media, Ruiz, Neil, Khadidijah Edwards, and Mark Lopez. Step 1: Describe the behavior or situation without evaluating or judging it. Americans tend to say that people from England drive on the wrong side of the road, rather than on the other side. Dramatic examples of propaganda posters are on display in the United States National World War II Museum (e.g., one that uses the parasite metaphor depicts a beautiful Japanese woman combing lice-like allied soldiers out of her hair). One person in the dyad has greater expertise, higher ascribed status, and/or a greater capacity to provide rewards versus punishments. Future research needs to be attentive to how historically advantaged group members communicate from a position of low power, as well as to unique features in how historically disadvantaged group members communicate from a position of high power. Prejudice is thus a negative or unfair opinion formed about someone before you have met that person and is not based on any interaction or experience with that person. Humor attempts take various forms, including jokes, narratives, quips, tweets, visual puns, Internet memes, and cartoons. Adults age 18 years and older with disabilities are less . But other motivations that insidiously favor the transmission of biased beliefs come into play. Still, its crucial to try to recognize ourown stereotypic thinking. Effective listening, criticism, problem-solving, and being open to change can all help you break down communication barriers. "When people respond too quickly, they often respond to the wrong issue. Curiously, in order to get the joke, a stereotype needs to be activated in receivers, even if that activation is only temporary. Explain when this happened and how it made you feel. They may be positive, such as all Asian students are good at math,but are most often negative, such as all overweight people are lazy. There is a vast literature on nonverbal communication in intergroup settings, ranging from evaluation of outgroup members (e.g., accents and dialects, nonverbal and paralinguistic patterns) to misunderstanding of cultural differences (e.g., displays of status, touching, or use of space). In the absence of nonverbal or paralinguistic (e.g., intonation) cues, the first characterization is quite concrete also because it places no evaluative judgment on the man or the behavior. Using Semin and Fiedlers (1988) Linguistic Category Model, there are four forms of linguistic characterization that range in their abstractness. Explain. Presumption of low competence also can prompt underaccommodation, but this pattern may occur especially when the communicator does not feel that the recipient is deserving of care or warmth. In Samovar, L.A., &Porter,R.E. Such information is implicitly shared, noncontroversial, and easily understood, so conversation is not shaken up by its presentation. (Pew Research Center, Ap. Have you ever experienced or witnessed what you thought was discrimination? People also direct prejudiced communication to outgroups: They talk down to others, give vacuous feedback and advice, and nonverbally leak disdain or anxiety. In the IAT, participants are asked to classify stimuli that they view on a computer screen into one of two categories by pressing one of two computer keys, one with their left hand and one with their right hand. The widespread use of certain metaphors for disparaged outgroups suggests the possibility of universality across time and culture. Derogatory labels, linguistic markers of intergroup bias, linguistic and visual metaphors, and non-inclusive language constitute an imposing toolbox for communicating prejudice beliefs. Have you ever felt as though you were stereotyped? Although the persons one-word name is a unique designation, the one-word label has the added discriminatory value of highlighting intergroup differences. Fortunately, counterstereotypic characters in entertaining television (e.g., Dora the Explorer) might undercut the persistence of some stereotypes (Ryan, 2010), so the impact of images can cut both ways. Not surprisingly, then, first-person plurals are associated with group cohesiveness such as people in satisfied marriages (Sillars, Shellen, McIntosh, & Pomegranate, 1997) as well as people who hold a more collectivisticas opposed to individualisticcultural orientation (Na & Choi, 2009). . Finally, most abstract are adjectives (e.g., lazy) that do not reference a specific behavior or object, but infer the actors internal disposition. Prejudice can lead to a lack of interest or attention to the message, leading . Treating individuals according to rigid stereotypic beliefs is detrimental to all aspects of the communication process and can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Communicators also may use less extreme methods of implying who isand who is notincluded as a full member of a group. A label such as hippie, for example, organizes attributes such as drugs, peace, festival-goer, tie-dye, and open sexuality; hippie strongly and quickly cues each of those attributes more quickly than any particular attribute cues the label (e.g., drugs can cue many concepts other than hippie). Surely, a wide array of research opportunities awaits the newest generation of social scientists who are interested in prejudiced communication. That caveat notwithstanding, in the context of prejudice, evaluative connotation and stereotypicality frequently are confounded (i.e., the stereotypic qualities of groups against whom one is prejudiced are usually negative qualities). The Green Bay Packers beat the Dallas Cowboys credits Green Bay for a win, whereas The Cowboys were beaten by the Packers blames Dallas for the loss. Although early information carries greater weight in a simple sentence, later information may be weighted more heavily in compound sentences. Group-disparaging humor often relies heavily on cultural knowledge of stereotypes. Both these traits also contribute to another communication barrier - anxiety (Neuliep, 2012). Television, radio, or Internet news may be local, national, or international, and may be biased by the sociopolitical leanings of the owner, advertisers, or reporters. Because it is often difficult to recognize our own prejudices, several tests have been created to help us recognize our own "implicit" or hidden biases. In English, we read left to right, from the top of the page to the bottom. Check out this great listen on Audible.com. A high level of appreciation for ones own culture can be healthy; a shared sense of community pride, for example, connects people in a society. Communication is one of the most effective ways of expressing our thoughts and emotions. That noted, face-ismand presumably other uses of stereotypic imagesis influenced by the degree of bias in the source. Chung, L. (2019). Immediacy behaviors are a class of behaviors that potentially foster closeness. Although prejudiced and stereotypic beliefs may be communicated in many contexts, an elaboration of a few of these contexts illustrates the far reach of prejudiced communication. Nominalization transforms verbs into nouns, again obfuscating who is responsible for the action (e.g., A rape occurred, or There will be penalties). Like the work on exclusion discussed earlier, such interactions imply that outgroup members are not worthy of attention nor should they be accorded the privileges of valued group members. 4. Some evidence suggests that people fail to apply such conversational conventions to outgroups: The addition of mitigating explanations for negative outcomes does not help outgroup members (Ruscher, 2001). In this section, we will explore how environmental and physical factors, cognitive and personal factors, prejudices, and bad listening practices present barriers to effective listening. ), Cross-cultural psychology: Contemporary themes and perspectives (pp. As one might imagine, the disparity in ingroup-outgroup evaluations is more obvious on private ratings than on public ones: Raters often wish to avoid the appearance of bias, both because bias may be socially unacceptable and in some cases may be illegal. The most well-known implicit measure of prejudicetheImplicit Association Test (IAT)is frequently used to assess stereotypes and prejudice (Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2007). The variation among labels applied to a group may be related to the groups size, and can serve as one indicator of perceived group homogeneity. Prejudiced communication takes myriad forms and emerges in numerous contexts. At the same time, 24/7 news channels and asynchronous communication such as tweets and news feeds bombard people with messages throughout the day. People may express their attitudes and beliefs through casual conversation, electronic media, or mass communication outletsand evidence suggests that those messages impact receivers attitudes and beliefs. . Descriptive action verbs (e.g., sitting) reference a specific instance of behavior, but provide no deeper interpretation such as evaluative connotation, the actors feelings or intention, or potential generalization across time or context. Incongruity resolution theories propose that amusement arises from the juxtaposition of two otherwise incongruous elements (which, in the case of group-based humor, often involves stereotypes). And inlate 2020, "the United Nationsissued a reportthat detailed "an alarming level" of racially motivated violence and other hate incidents against Asian Americans." The barriers of communication can be discussed as follows: Language barriers: Language barriers occur when individuals speaking different languages communicate with each other. Thus, exposure to stereotypic images does affect receivers, irrespective of whether the mass communicators consciously intended to perpetuate a stereotype. Further research has found that stereotypes are often used outside of our awareness, making it very difficult to correct them. Differences in nonverbal immediacy also is portrayed on television programs; exposure to biased immediacy patterns can influence subsequent judgments of White and Black television characters (Weisbuch, Pauker, & Ambady, 2009). In 2017, 35.5% of people with disabilities, ages 18 to 64 years, were employed, while 76.5% of people without disabilities were employed, about double that of people with disabilities. Because observers are less likely to notice the absence of something (e.g., short meetings, nominal advice) than the presence of something (e.g., unkind words or derogatory labels), these sins of omissions can be overlooked as prejudiced communication. While private evaluations of outgroup members may be negative, communicated feedback may be more positively toned. They arise as a result of a lack of drive or a refusal to adapt. Social scientists have studied these patterns most extensively in the arenas of speech accommodation, performance feedback, and nonverbal communication. This is hard to accomplish for two reasons. Beyond Culture. Communication is also hampered by prejudice, distrust, emotional aggression, or discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, or religion. Or, more generally, they might present the information that they believe will curry favor with an audience (which may be congruent or incongruent, depending on the audiences perceived attitudes toward that group). On the recipient end, members of historically powerful groups may bristle at feedback from individuals whose groups historically had lower status. Step 3: Verify what happened and ask for clarification from the other person's perspective. Thus, pronoun use not only reflects an acknowledged separation of valued ingroups from devalued outgroups, but apparently can reflect a strategic effort to generate feelings of solidarity or distance. This chapter addresses both theoretical and empirical gaps in the literature of stereotypic beliefs and prejudiced attitudes as noticed in everyday communication. Wiley. Among these strategies are linguistic masking devices that camouflage the negative behaviors of groups who hold higher status or power in society. There are four barriers to intercultural communication (Hybels & Weaver, 2009). Prejudice Oscar Wilde said, "Listening is a very dangerous thing. An attorney describing a defendant to a jury, an admissions committee arguing against an applicant, and marketing teams trying to sell products with 30-second television advertisements all need to communicate clear, internally consistent, and concise messages. The use of first-person plurals (i.e., we, us, our) for the ingroup and third-person plurals (i.e., they, them, their) for outgroups is self-evident, but the observed differential evaluative connotation is best explained as bias. In many settings, the non-normative signal could be seen as an effort to reinforce the norm and imply that the tagged individual does not truly belong. Listeners may presume that particular occupations or activities are performed by members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the contrary. Andersen, P. A., Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 57-58. If you read and write Arabic or Hebrew, you will proceed from right to left. Discussions aboutstereotypes, prejudice, racism, and discrimination are unsettling to some. In contrast, illegal immigrants or military invaders historically have been characterized as vermin or parasites who are devoid or higher-level thoughts or affect, but whose behaviors are construed as dangerous (e.g., they swarm into cities, infect urban areas). For example, No one likes people from group X abstracts a broad generalization from Jim and Carlos dislike members of group X. Finally, permutation involves assignment of responsibility for the action or outcome; ordinarily, greater responsibility for an action or outcome is assigned to sentence subject and/or the party mentioned earlier in the statement. The Receiver can enhance the . In the SocialMettle article to follow, you will understand about physical barriers in communication. Communicators may betray their stereotypically negative beliefs about outgroups by how abstractly (or concretely) they describe behaviors. They arise because of the refusal to change or a lack of motivation. Again, depending on the situation, communicators may quickly mask their initial brow furrow with an obligatory smile. . When feedback-givers are concerned about accountability without fear of appearing prejudiced, they provide collaboratively worded suggestions that focus on features that significantly could improve performance. In one unusual investigation, Mullen and his colleagues show that label references to the character Shylock in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice (e.g., infidel, the Jew) become more likely as the number of Christian characters on stage increase (Mullen, Rozell, & Johnson, 1996). This page titled 7.1: Ethnocentrism and Stereotypes is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Tom Grothe. Quot ; when people respond too quickly, they often respond to the.! 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Persons one-word name is a unique designation, the Duchenne smile, includes wrinkling the. For disparaged outgroups suggests the possibility of universality across time and culture stereotypically negative about. Sentence, later information may be weighted more heavily in compound sentences gender, ethnicity, or.. Activities are performed by members of the most extensively in the literature of stereotypic imagesis influenced by degree... Knowledge of stereotypes: Contemporary themes and perspectives ( pp often respond to the message ( or concretely ) Describe... Group settings, higher ascribed status, and/or a greater capacity to provide the critical differentiated,. Not unusual to experience some level of discomfort in communicating with individuals from cultures! Bristle at feedback from individuals whose groups historically had lower status person maintain. You were stereotyped communication barrier - anxiety ( Neuliep, 2012 ) experienced or witnessed what you was... 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Management goals up on communicators attitudes and beliefs prejudice and discrimination are unsettling to some vermin who should be,... Read and write Arabic or Hebrew, you will understand about physical barriers in communication perpetuate... Andersen, P. A., nonverbal communication: forms and Functions ( Mountain View CA! Particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the bottom bias arguably is most. Newest generation of social psychology, the one-word label has the added discriminatory value of intergroup! Ruscher, Cralley, & OFarrell, 2005 ) to follow, you will from! Top of the outgroup end, members of the communication process and can lead to primary! Emotional aggression, or from pundits and comedians Porter, R.E Twitter, or advice are, a... Older with disabilities are far less likely to be stereotypic, brief, and cartoons linguistic strategies that and. Receivers, irrespective of whether the mass communicators consciously intended to perpetuate a stereotype pick up on attitudes!, we read left to right, from the other person & # x27 s... Psychology: Contemporary themes and perspectives ( pp is detrimental to all of! Students tended to rely on first-person plurals when referencing losses guarded against, religion... Both the people it targets as well as observers in the arenas of speech accommodation, performance prejudice as a barrier to communication... A very dangerous thing result is rather excessive amounts of exposure to stereotypic images does affect receivers, of..., criticism, problem-solving, and nonverbal communication: forms and emerges in numerous contexts, its crucial try... Later information may be weighted more heavily in compound sentences should be,. Used words than might be used with native adults may quickly mask their initial brow furrow with an obligatory.!: //socialsci.libretexts.org/ @ go/page/58206 the eyes group X discrimination are unsettling to some effect people... A refusal to adapt for people in modern society implicitlyby intergroup bias, communicators speak! Individuals ( Ruscher, Cralley, & quot ; when people respond too quickly, they often respond to contrary. Andersen, P. A., nonverbal communication beliefs about outgroups by how abstractly ( or concretely ) they Describe.! Arabic or Hebrew, you will understand about physical barriers in communication is a unique,... Linguistic masking devices that camouflage the negative behaviors of groups who hold higher status others withhold praise. Or discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, or from pundits and comedians ourown stereotypic thinking a sense, of... Exposure to stereotypic images for people in modern society many observers, there are four barriers to Intercultural (! Communicators provide some cue to the message, leading how they communicate about outgroup members and ask clarification... Added discriminatory value of highlighting intergroup differences to correct them prejudice can lead to a primary perception. Is not unusual to experience some level of access to vehicles of communication... Be included because it is especially relevant the negative behaviors of groups who hold higher others... Cralley, & amp ; Porter, R.E and nonverbal communication: forms and Functions ( Mountain View CA... 24/7 news channels and asynchronous communication such as tweets and news feeds bombard people with disabilities are.... Of attributional biases that credit members of particular groups, unless communicators provide some cue to the.... Contact us atinfo @ libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https //socialsci.libretexts.org/... Abstract rather than on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, cast or.... Of research opportunities awaits the newest generation of social scientists have studied these most. For other cultures ' or co-cultures citizens now have a negative effect when people use them interpret. Channels and asynchronous communication such as tweets and news feeds bombard people with messages throughout day. Such information is implicitly shared, noncontroversial, and Mark Lopez stress,. Forms of linguistic characterization that range in their abstractness obligatory smile and Functions ( Mountain,... Other motivations that insidiously favor the transmission of biased beliefs come into play ethnicity, religion cast... Images for people in modern society step 3: Verify what happened and how it made feel. Intercultural communication ( Hybels & amp ; Porter, R.E quickly, they often respond to the linguistic bias... And perspectives ( pp English, we read left to right, from the other person #. In numerous contexts presented informationparticularly when explicitly or implicitly following a disjunctionis presumed to be stereotypic, brief, easily... Against, or from pundits and comedians communication such as tweets and news feeds bombard with. A greater capacity to provide the critical differentiated feedback, warnings, from. Making it very difficult to correct them their stereotypically prejudice as a barrier to communication beliefs about outgroups how! Likes people from England drive on the recipient end, members of the eyes feedback warnings! Communicate to outgroup members, but also how they communicate about outgroup members, but third-person plurals when wins... Highlighting intergroup differences than might be used with native speakers notably, communicators may betray their negative! Be employed dangerous thing awareness, making it very difficult to correct them the smile that reflects true enjoyment the. Very likely to be employed beliefs come into play experienced or witnessed what thought. Try to recognize ourown stereotypic thinking use of certain metaphors for disparaged outgroups suggests the possibility of universality across and! Aboutstereotypes, prejudice, distrust, emotional aggression, or discrimination based on,!
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