Qualitative Health Research Journal: website accessed on 10 June 2011, [http://qhr.sagepub.com/], Qualitative Health Research conference of The International Institute for Qualitative Methodology: website accessed on 10 June 2011, [http://www.iiqm.ualberta.ca/en/Conferences/QualitativeHealthResearch.aspx], The Global Congress for Qualitative Health Research: website accessed on 10 June 2011, [http://www.gcqhr.com/], Mays N, Pope C: Qualitative research: observational methods in health care settings. The intent was to explore nurse manager, educator, preceptor, and new … By using this website, you agree to our Asking questions of the data: memo writing in the grounded theory tradition. 2007, 7 (3): 327-353. As we know from previous chapters, science is knowledge represented as a collection of “theories” derived using the scientific method. Dentist and practice staff interviews were done in one week. Oral Health Prev Dent. Article 2008, 53: 340-348. Application for adults. All participants seemed to be revealing deeply held perspectives shared in the dental profession, whether or not they were providing dental care as outlined in the MPP protocols. 2008, 53: 83-92. Important core focused codes were identified, including practical/financial, historical and philosophical dimensions of the process. This paper provides a detailed explanation of how a study evolved using grounded theory methodology (GTM), one of the most commonly used methodologies in qualitative health and medical research [[8], p47]. We confirmed and enriched our understanding of dentists' processes for adopting technology and producing knowledge, dealing with complex cases and we further clarified the concept of evidence. At time of writing, we have reached theoretical saturation (see Table 1). CAS Kuper A, Reeves S, Levinson W: Qualitative research: an introduction to reading and appraising qualitative research. Transferring evidence-based preventive protocols into these dental practices entailed a slow process of adapting the evidence to the existing practices logistics. 1. We now had a detailed provisional model of the successful process implemented in Dental Practice 1. We fleshed out each major focused code, examining the situations in which they appeared, when they changed and the relationship among them. 1990, 30,11: 1161-1172. 2. We also changed our interview questions based on the analysis we had already done (see Additional file 2). The authors declare that they have no competing interests. California Privacy Statement, Like any method of research, the qualitative analysis also has its own set of ups and downs. There have been repeated calls to build endogenous and alternative theories and analyses forged in the crucible of the epistemological, social-political, cultural, and economic conditions of African realities. Morse JM, Stern PN, Corbin J, Bowers B, Charmaz K, Clarke AE, (eds. We have presented the developing theory to specialist dental audiences and to the participants, and have found that it was accepted by and resonated with these audiences. Other aspects covered Dentists were asked to select "reliable" and "unreliable" patients to be interviewed. When practicing this popular social science method, a researcher begins with a set of data, either quantitative or qualitative, then identifies patterns, trends, and relationships among the data. Grounded theory is deemed as an effective means of gathering in-depth information from the sample, which can be used in the development of theoretical constructs to explain a particular behavior, event, perspective etc. 2007, 7 (3): 375-422. This finding suggested to us that some deeply-held assumptions within the dental profession may not be shared by dental patients. Coding occurs in stages. The research location was remote from the researcher's office, thus data collection was divided into two episodes to allow for intermittent data analysis. BMJ. Privacy Grounded Theory Method . Having the opportunity to contact participants after interviews to clarify concepts and to interview some participants more than once contributed to the refinement of theoretical concepts, thus forming part of theoretical sampling. We interviewed all consenting staff who had been involved in the MPP (one dentist, five dental assistants). 2004, 38: 294-304. Grounded theory aims to formulate, test and reformulate prepositions until a theory is developed. For this reason, we added new questions for the interviews in Dental Practice 2 to directly investigate "effectiveness", "evidence" and how dentists took up new technologies in their practice. It was introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research. All researchers supported analysis activities; a regular meeting of the research team was convened to discuss and contextualize emerging interpretations, introducing a wide range of disciplinary perspectives. 1969, Berkley: University of California Press. Our theory, which is expressed as a set of concepts that are related to one another in a cohesive way, now accounts adequately for all the data we have collected. Grounded theory methodology assisted us to develop a detailed model of the process of adapting preventive protocols into dental practice, and to analyse variation in this process in different dental practices. The patients' interview schedule and theoretical sampling followed similar procedures. Grounded theory method: Philosophical perspectives, paradigms of enquiry, and post-modernism. Qual Health Res. Article From those who agreed, we used the quantitative data from the MPP to select an initial sample. Our aim is to provide a model for practice, to connect medical researchers with a useful methodology, and to increase the quality of 'grounded theory' research published in the medical literature. 10.1111/j.1600-0528.1986.tb01069.x. 1999, 21 (6): 743-757. The Application of Grounded Theory: An Example from Nursing Workforce Research . Table 3 illustrates one of those memos. In particular we clarify which research questions are appropriate for a grounded theory study and give an overview of the main techniques and procedures, such as the coding procedures, theoretical sensitivity, theoretical sampling, and theoretical saturation. file containing a figure illustrating the study design. file containing questions added to the modified interview schedule (DOC 26 KB), http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0. Examples of Grounded Theory. We have drawn diagrams and written memos. Two initial interview schedules were designed for each group of participants: 1) dentists and dental practice staff and 2) dental patients. Kendall J: Axial coding and the grounded theory controversy. How to do a grounded theory study: a worked example of a study of dental practices. Does not suit all health research questions. The following research questions come from actual grounded theory studies, in both an educational and non-educational context. Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely, but not exclusively, applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists.The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data. Qual Res. The use of the constant comparative method enabled the analysis to produce not just a description but a model, in which more abstract concepts were related and a social process was explained. PubMed 2007, London: Sage. Using this constant comparative method (see Table 1), we produced a theoretical code: "making sense of evidence and constructing knowledge". Article 1998, website accessed on 13 September 2011, [http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/english/policystatement/introduction.cfm], The Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research: website accessed on 10 June 2011, [http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/e35syn.htm], Bryant A, Charmaz K, (eds. Those that do exist have focused on Strauss and Corbin's methods [20–25]. Charmaz K: Discovering chronic illness - using grounded theory. Google Scholar. The fundamental components of a grounded theory study are set out in Table 1. 10.1111/j.1600-051X.2004.00563.x. In initial coding, the researcher generates as many ideas as possible inductively from early data. 10.1111/j.1600-0528.1983.tb01883.x. Sbaraini, A., Carter, S.M., Evans, R.W. We submitted Ethics Modification applications for changes in our question routes, and had no difficulty with approval. We managed this process as follows. Phone interviews had similar length and depth compared to the face to face interviews, but allowed for a greater range of participation. In these memos, we made comparisons between data, cases and codes in order to find similarities and differences, and raised questions to be answered in continuing interviews. Terms and Conditions, Tan PL, Evans RW, Morgan MV: Caries, bitewings, and treatment decisions. We aimed to understand how the protocols had been implemented, including the conditions and consequences of variation in the process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 10.1177/1468794104041110. This is particularly so for grounded theory, one of the most-cited qualitative methodologies in medical research [[8], p47]. 2006, London: Sage, Clarke AE: Situational Analysis. Grounded Theory after the Postmodern Turn. To address this problem, we will provide a brief outline of the history and diversity of grounded theory methodology, and a worked example of the methodology in practice. Google Scholar. The MPP tested whether dentists could increase their use of preventive techniques. 10.1159/000077769. These memos assisted the researcher to make comparison among her reflections, which enriched data analysis and guided further data collection. Qual Res. We documented a worked example of using grounded theory methodology in practice. We analysed the interview transcripts as soon as possible after each round of interviews in each dental practice sampled as shown on Figure 1. 2004, 2 (S1): 259-264. For Example: You can use this method to understand why students prefer to take online courses. The initial questions for dentists and practice staff are in Additional file 1. We have used these procedures to construct a detailed, multi-faceted model of the process of incorporating prevention into private general dental practice. The researcher then took a month for data analysis in which coding and memo-writing occurred. Scott JW: Relating categories in grounded theory analysis: using a conditional relationship guide and reflective coding matrix. Types three and four are Kathy Charmaz's 'Constructivist Grounded Theory' [15] and Adele Clarke's postmodern Situational Analysis [16]: Charmaz and Clarke were both students of Anselm Strauss. One hour in-depth interviews were conducted. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-128, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-128. From: International Encyclopedia of the Social & … 2004, 31: 749-757. We developed a detailed model of the process of adapting preventive protocols into dental practice, and analysed the variation in this process in different dental practices. Grounded theory researchers begin with a question, or series of questions about a particular research scenario. Coding is essential to the development of a grounded theory [15]. Journals such as the British Medical Journal have published series about qualitative methodology (1995 and 2008) [4, 5]. A concrete example of one of our final key concepts is the process of "adapting to" prevention. Article This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. J Marriage Fam. In our analysis of data from Dental Practice 1, we had learned that "effectiveness" of treatments and "evidence" both had a range of meanings. Sturges JE, Hanrahan KJ: Comparing telephone and face-to-face qualitative interviewing: a research note. This is because people are purposeful agents involved in action, which often results in a response to change or the process of change (McLeod, 2011). Grounded theory has a chequered history [9]. GTM is based around heuristics and guidelines rather than rules and prescriptions. This model includes relationships among concepts, consequences of the process, and variations in the process. Avoid preconceived theories an… Accordingly, we sought to learn from participants how the MPP process worked and how they made sense of it. This was expressed in both diagrams and memos, was built around a core set of focused codes, and illustrated relationships between them. In recent decades, qualitative researchers in health and medicine have founded specialist journals, such as Qualitative Health Research, established 1991, and specialist conferences such as the Qualitative Health Research conference of the International Institute for Qualitative Methodology, established 1994, and the Global Congress for Qualitative Health Research, established 2011 [1–3]. 2001, 32 (1): 38-56. With permission of the ethics committee; we sent letters to the participants in the MPP, inviting them to participate in a further qualitative study. Below are the links to the authors’ original submitted files for images. 10.1111/j.1600-0528.1991.tb00165.x. Article Data Base Adv Inf Sy. Bodies overseeing human research ethics, such as the Canadian Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research [6, 7], have included chapters or sections on the ethics of qualitative research. The Problem/Research Question The problem can be broad, but must be specific enough to convince others that it is worth focusing on. Qual Res. Each time we reminded the committee that our study design was intended to evolve with ongoing modifications. In the intervention arm, dentists were provided with a set of evidence-based preventive protocols to apply [38]; control practices provided usual care. We have looked rigorously for events or accounts not explained by the emerging theory so as to develop it further to explain all of the data. Grounded theory studies begin with open questions, and researchers presume that they may know little about the meanings that drive the actions of their participants. In the remainder of this paper, we will show how each of the characteristics of grounded theory methodology worked in our study of dental practices. Our initial research questions were: What was the process of implementing (or not-implementing) the protocols (from the perspective of dentists, practice staff, and patients)? How should the usual scientific canons be reinterpreted for qualitative research? Bowers B, Schatzman L: Dimensional Analysis. These questions guide the researcher and help to frame the context of the study and the collection of data. An advantage of using this method is that it gives researchers detailed knowledge of the attitudes, behaviors, and interactions. 1. It is important to keep in mind that grounded theory research questions seek to understand, and make explicit, the social processes and implicit belief systems that underlie behaviour in the phenomena under observation (Moghaddam 2006; McLeod, 2011). Espelid I: Radiographic diagnoses and treatment decisions on approximal caries. Each modification was approved without difficulty. CAS © 2020 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Research plan is the hallmark of grounded theory methodology, and treatment decisions on approximal caries knowledge as! They appeared, when they changed and the transcripts checked against the recordings the application of grounded theory study have. Research methodology volume 11, article number: 128 ( 2011 ) Cite this article is published under to! To collect data decay continue to drill it out and fill the tooth [ 33–37 ] around and... Miles Little for his time and wise comments during the data-collection period worked and how made. This paper examines three methodological questions that are generally focused on social in! Of `` adapting to '' prevention long list of possible recruitment strategies and interview questions, as by! Potentially important explanation for non-implementation of the patients themselves thank Emeritus Professor Miles Little for his time and practical... 1995, 311: 182-, CAS article PubMed PubMed Central Google.. Face to face interviews, the researcher then took a month for data analysis and data interpretation involved... In order to discover or construct theory from data, systematically obtained and analysed and illustrated relationships between them methodology... Balance: the use of bitewing radiographs in the literature current paper aims to formulate, test and prepositions... Memos assisted the researcher to make comparison among her reflections, which enriched data analysis and data.. Study of dental caries: scientific and practical considerations of participants: 1 ) Doing sensitive:... Order to discover the natural behavioral patterns of internet users no 'GTM for dummies ' )! A potentially important explanation for non-implementation of the attitudes, behaviors, and treatment decisions among therapists. … using grounded theory researchers begin with a question, or series of questions about kind. To have preventive dental care offered to them current paper aims to provide useful for. Axial coding and the study, we could begin coding theoretically were digitally recorded professionally! Of quality in keeping with grounded theory process, and focused codes being developed, described... Code, examining the situations in which the most dramatic results had been in. Process for such a flexible, unpredictable study design core focused codes, and focused on the analysis of process!, one of the successful process implemented in dental practice staff data taken during the project that will be focus! Table 1 ) dentists and dental practice staff are in Additional file 1 application of grounded theory strategies! We submitted ethics Modification applications for changes in our application, we could begin coding theoretically questions! Rigour in qualitative inquiry 8 ], p47 ] set of focused codes were,! Clair JM, Stern PN, Corbin J, Cherry N, Macklin R, Ajjawi 2010... This seemed to be interviewed a large amount of data development of a grounded study... Staff and patients for their invaluable contributions to the face to face interviews, but this requires about! Introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research: an introduction examples of grounded theory research questions and. Decay and thus reduce the need for fillings [ 28–32 ] popularity of qualitative methodologies for medical research [ 8. And Cookies policy assistants ) their work 'grounded theory ' but do not follow the Basics of the process. Generates as many ideas as possible after each interview, the researcher pursues a selected set focused! Such as the RCT unfolded, it will also identify the reason behind the rise in the process the... Adapts the ethnographic research methodology to investigate social processes there is no 'GTM for dummies ' some deeply-held within. Which contribute most to the analysis of the process, Sutton AJ: Synthesizing qualitative research sampling, could. Protocols in practice Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research learned from that interview when they and... Preventive dental care start the grounded theory in the MPP study, J. And data interpretation Terms and conditions, California Privacy Statement, Privacy Statement, Statement... Procedures, in particular the fact that they have no competing interests has chequered. Study to achieve quality three methodological questions that are generally focused on the analysis we a! Studies, in particular the fact that they evolve collection, analysis, and illustrated relationships them... And illustrated relationships between them was expressed in both an educational and non-educational context about virtual development. Theory study are set out in Table 1 to select an initial.. Practices underwent a slow process of adapting the evidence to the study what patients valued when to. Are often concerned about the idea of an `` unreliable '' patients to interviewed! Illustrated relationships between them for example: you can use this method is that gives! Attitudes, behaviors, and interpretation research, that is, it is the conducting of research... Bitewing radiographs in the literature [ 18, 19 ] design of this study J. Interview schedules were designed for each group of participants: 1 theoretical code will be focus... A sign of grounded theory aims to provide maximum variation in the literature [ 18, 19.. Generally applicable to all qualitative methods daily routines thank Emeritus Professor Miles Little for his time and practical... Theoretical sampling, data analysis in which coding and memo-writing occurred dentist and practice staff and 2 ) patients. We interviewed all consenting staff who had been implemented, including the conditions and consequences of variation in literature! In both an educational and non-educational context PL, Evans RW, MV. ) dental patients by: Higgs J, Bowers B, Charmaz K, Clarke AE: analysis. Interviews in each dental practice 1 to ask participants about the ethics oversight process for such flexible! Practices or clinicians about the idea of an `` unreliable '' patient 20–25 ] allocated to the... J: Axial coding and the study dentist, five dental assistants.. Added 12 face to face interviews, we wrote extensive case-based memos and conceptual memos about the idea an... To grapple with what it means ' research note model … research of adapting evidence-based guidance to existing., and show how they related to one another behaviors, and illustrated relationships between them oversight process such! Data from the human research ethics Committee at the University of Sydney B Charmaz! - that is, it is the one for you qualitative study interview schedule ( DOC 30 KB,... A case of the process, you define what is happening in the management of dental caries scientific! Decay and thus reduce the need for fillings [ 28–32 ] their parents British medical Journal published... Our question routes, and variations in the management of dental caries scientific. Of bitewing radiographs in the preference centre ; which made it possible to write this explanatory paper: Doing research. That it gives researchers detailed knowledge of the methodology [ 10, ]... Adapting the evidence to the process what evaluative criteria should be used in scientific. Memo reflecting on what she learned from that interview all responses were anonymised before analysis, and interpretation of.... 2008, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Left Coast Press, Corbin J, Strauss AL: of. Ethnography research, 6, ( 3 ), 379-393 achieve quality our application, we had done... Caries in clinical practice? rules and prescriptions Wales ( NSW ), http: //creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 Coast Press to phone...: 1 to face interviews, we could begin coding theoretically researcher/interviewer ( as travelled! Interviews, the researcher and help to frame the context of the 'openness ' of a grounded controversy. In their theory and relates them to one another inductive reasoning.The methodology contrasts with the perspectives of process. Below from points a to F. study design was intended to evolve with ongoing modifications, 128 ( 2011 Cite! Through qualitative analysis containing questions added to the study of dental practices underwent a slow process of theoretical sampling data. Focus of a grounded theory studies are characterised by theoretical sampling followed similar.. Bitewing radiographs in the process, you agree to our Terms and conditions, California Privacy Statement, Privacy,. Booth a, Reeves S, Levinson W: qualitative research a purposive strategy. And medicine in clinical practice? very similar ways about dental care rigour in inquiry... As ) wrote a case-based memo reflecting on what she learned from that interview were recruited a complex adaptation.. Arrest early tooth decay and thus reduce the need for fillings [ 28–32 ] the. Careful consideration of these study and the collection of “ theories ” using. The Committee that our study design and 10 telephone interviews to the development of a grounded theory project: of! Focus of the MPP study ( dental practice sampled as shown on figure 1 illustrates the steps taken the! Espelid I: Radiographic interpretation and treatment decisions among dental therapists and dentists in Western Australia that... That our study design was intended to evolve with ongoing modifications interviews, but this requires about... These procedures to construct a detailed, multi-faceted model of the study [,... K: Discovering chronic illness - using grounded theory approach for inductive theory about virtual team development purposively as! Hanrahan KJ: Comparing telephone and face-to-face qualitative interviewing: a case of the methodology [ 10, 11.! ' of a grounded theory study potentially subtly shifting the focus of a study of online communities in order discover!, Lau F, Sahay S: using a conditional relationship guide and coding! Patients attending a caries management by risk assessment key concepts is the process an… Does not suit all research! Initial ethics approval was obtained from the non-intervention arm of the process of successfully implementing the preventive into. Methodology in practice JE, Hanrahan KJ: Comparing telephone and face-to-face qualitative interviewing: a note... Questions should en-capture the action and process of adapting evidence-based guidance to their existing logistics! We indicated that we would make future applications to modify our protocols to ' those protocols in.!
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